Assorted References

• American Indians
  • In American Indian: Northern America
• burial mounds
  • In burial mound
• Canadian rights issues
  • In Canada: Indigenous affairs
• colonial education in Québec
  • In education: French Québec
• contribution to Genographic Project
  • In Genographic Project: Ethical and social issues
• eschatology and nativistic movements
  • In eschatology: Nativistic movements
• ethnohistory
  • In North America: The North American Indian heritage
• hunter-gatherers
  • In hunter-gatherer
• Indigenous Peoples’ Day
  • In Indigenous Peoples’ Day
• land policy in United States
  • In Dawes General Allotment Act
  • In United States: Indian policy
• Native American religions
  • In Native American religions: North America
• policies of the Founding Fathers
  • In Founding Fathers: The failure
• relationship with Quakers
  • In Society of Friends: The rise of Quakerism
• research by Swanton
  • In John Reed Swanton
• style of jewelry
  • In jewelry: North American
• Subarctic Indian cultures
  • In American Subarctic peoples
• trade with early American settlers
  • In American colonies: Trade with Native Americans
• tradition of Raven cycle
  • In Raven cycle
• trickster tales
  • In trickster tale
• visual arts
  • In Native American art: Regional style: North America

SIDEBARS

• Native American Self-Names
  • In Native American Self-Names
• Tribal Nomenclature: American Indian, Native American, and First Nation
  • In Tribal Nomenclature: American Indian, Native American, and First Nation

affected by

• American Revolution
  • In United States: Prelude to revolution
• Black Hawk War history
  • In Black Hawk War
  • In Black Hawk War: Indian removal and growing tensions in Illinois
• Great Drought
  • In Great Drought
• War of 1812
  • In United States: The Indian-American problem

Canadian literature

• In Canadian literature: Fiction

• Scott
  • In Duncan Campbell Scott

distribution

• Alabama
  • In Alabama: Earliest peoples
• Alaska
  • In Alaska: Constitutional framework
  • In Alaska: Health and welfare
• British Columbia
  • In British Columbia: Population composition
  • In British Columbia: History of British Columbia
• Colorado
  • In Colorado: The earliest inhabitants
• Colorado River basin
  • In Colorado River: Early inhabitants
• Connecticut
  • In Connecticut: Population composition
  • In Connecticut: Colonization
• Idaho
  • In Idaho: Early history and settlement
• Illinois
  • In Illinois: History of Illinois
• Indiana
  • In Indiana: Prehistory and exploration
• Iowa
  • In Iowa: Early history
• Kansas
  • In Kansas: Native Americans, explorers, and settlers
• Maine
  • In Maine: History
• Maryland
  • In Maryland: Population composition
• Massachusetts
  • In Massachusetts: History of Massachusetts
• Michigan
  • In Michigan: The earliest inhabitants
• Minnesota
  • In Minnesota: Early history
• Mississippi River basin
  • In Mississippi River: Early settlement and exploration
• Montana
  • In Montana: Population composition
  • In Montana: Native American cultures
• Nebraska
  • In Nebraska: Population composition
  • In Nebraska: Early history
• Nevada
  • In Nevada: History of Nevada
• New Hampshire
  • In New Hampshire: Native American population
• North American desert
  • In North American Desert
• North Dakota
  • In North Dakota: Population composition
  • In North Dakota: Early history
• Ohio
  • In Ohio: Prehistory and settlement
• Oklahoma
  • In Anadarko
• Oregon
  • In Oregon: History of Oregon
• Pacific Mountain region
  • In Pacific mountain system: People of the Pacific mountain system
• Rhode Island
  • In Rhode Island: Population composition
• Rocky Mountains
  • In Rocky Mountains: Animal life
• South Carolina
  • In South Carolina: Population composition
• South Dakota
  • In South Dakota
  • In South Dakota: Settlement and gold rush
• Tennessee
  • In Tennessee
• United States
  • In United States: Native Americans
• Utah
  • In Utah: Population composition
  • In Utah: Sports and recreation
  • In Utah: Prehistory and European exploration
• Virginia
  • In Virginia: Population composition
• Wisconsin
  • In Wisconsin: Early history
• Wyoming
  • In Wyoming: Population composition
  • In Wyoming: Early history

history

• In Native American: Native American history

• Battle of the Little Bighorn
  • In Battle of the Little Bighorn
• French and Indian War
  • In French and Indian War: Causes of the French and Indian War
• King William’s War
  • In King William’s War
• Numbered Treaties
  • In Numbered Treaties
• residential schools in Canada
  • In Canada: Residential schools apologies
• War of 1812
  • In War of 1812: Major causes of the war

warfare

• scalping
  • In scalping
• tomahawks
  • In tomahawk

Synthetic accounts of traditional cultures

There are many syntheses of the traditional cultures of Native America. An excellent collection of photos and essays was commissioned to celebrate the opening of the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of the American Indian, Gerald McMaster and Clifford E. Trafzer (eds.), Native Universe: Voices of Indian America (2004).

An encyclopaedic summary of knowledge, literature, and research on the principal cultural regions north of Mexico is provided by the multivolume William C. Sturtevant (ed.), Handbook of North American Indians (1978– ). Ongoing research is published in American Indian Culture and Research Journal (quarterly); and American Indian Quarterly.

Reference works include Carl Waldman and Molly Braun, Atlas of the North American Indian (1985), and Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes (1988); Barbara A. Leitch and Kendall T. LePoer (eds.), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Tribes of North America (1979); Barry T. Klein (ed.), Reference Encyclopedia of the American Indian, 6th ed. (1993); and Duane Champagne (ed.), The Native North American Almanac (1994), a combination of handbook, encyclopaedia, and directory.

Classic surveys of the native peoples of North America include Edward S. Curtis, The North American Indian, 20 vol. (1907–30, reissued 1978); Clark Wissler, The American Indian: An Introduction to the Anthropology of the New World (1917, reprinted 2005); A.L. Kroeber, Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America (1939, reprinted 1976); John R. Swanton, The Indian Tribes of North America (1952, reprinted 1984); and Fred Eggan (ed.), Social Anthropology of North American Tribes, 2nd enlarged ed. (1955, reissued 1970).

Indigenous religions of the Americas as a whole are explored in Denise Lardner Carmody and John Tully Carmody, Native American Religions: An Introduction (1993). Religious beliefs and ceremonies specific to North America are described in Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin, The Encyclopedia of Native American Religions (1992); Sam D. Gill and Irene F. Sullivan, Dictionary of Native American Mythology (1992); Connie Burland, North American Indian Mythology, new rev. ed., revised by Marion Wood (1985); Omer C. Stewart, Peyote Religion: A History (1987); Weston La Barre, The Peyote Cult, 5th ed., enlarged (1989); and Gregory E. Smoak, Ghost Dances and Identity: Prophetic Religion and American Indian Ethnogenesis in the Nineteenth Century (2006).

Broadly comparative works include Western Indians: Comparative Environments, Languages, and Cultures of 172 Western American Indian Tribes (1980), on Northwest Coast, Californian, North American Plateau, Great Basin, and Southwest peoples; Christopher Vecsey and Robert W. Venables (eds.), American Indian Environments: Ecological Issues in Native American History (1980); Thomas E. Ross and Tyrel G. Moore (eds.), A Cultural Geography of North American Indians (1987); Paul Stuart, Nations Within a Nation: Historical Statistics of American Indians (1987), with extensive tables and bibliography; North American Indians (1991), well illustrated; John Gattuso (ed.), Native America (1991), a description of people, places, history, and culture written and illustrated by Native Americans; Alice Beck Kehoe, North American Indians: A Comprehensive Account, 2nd ed. (1992); William T. Hagan, American Indians, 3rd ed. (1993); Shepard Krech III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History (1999); and Julian Granberry, The Americas That Might Have Been: Native American Social Systems Through Time (2005).

Information on the United States alone includes Francis Paul Prucha, Atlas of American Indian Affairs (1990); and Arlene Hirschfelder and Martha Kreipe de Montaño, The Native American Almanac: A Portrait of Native America Today (1993).

Synthetic studies of Canadian peoples are Harold Cardinal, The Rebirth of Canada’s Indians (1977), a study of government relations; Diamond Jenness, The Indians of Canada, 7th ed. (1977), a classic work; Jacqueline Peterson and Jennifer S.H. Brown (eds.), The New Peoples: Being and Becoming Métis in North America (1985); Bruce Alden Cox (ed.), Native People, Native Lands: Canadian Indians, Inuit, and Métis (1987), a study of economics with a bibliographic essay on Canadian native studies; J.R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada, rev. ed. (1991); Olive Patricia Dickason, Canada’s First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times (1992); and James S. Frideres and Lilianne Ernestine Krosenbrink-Gelissen, Native Peoples in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts, 4th ed. (1993).

An extensive listing of books and articles on particular Indian groups is given in George Peter Murdock and Timothy J. O’Leary, Ethnographic Bibliography of North America, 4th ed., 5 vol. (1975); and in a companion work, M. Marlene Martin and Timothy J. O’Leary, Ethnographic Bibliography of North America, Supplement, 1973–1987, 3 vol. (1990).

Prehistoric cultures, art, and populations

Thomas D. Dillehay, The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory (2000), is an account by the archaeologist whose analysis of the Monte Verde site changed modern notions of North American prehistory; it provides a synthetic account of the peopling of the Americas. Introductions to the broad chronological sweep of Native American prehistory include Jesse D. Jennings (ed.), Ancient North Americans (1983); M. Coe, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson, Atlas of Ancient America (1986); David L. Browman (ed.), Early Native Americans: Prehistoric Demography, Economy, and Technology (1980); David Hurst Thomas, Exploring Ancient Native America: An Archaeological Guide (1994); and Norman Bancroft-Hunt, Historical Atlas of Ancient America (2001).

An account of the archaeological exploration of the largest city in prehistoric Native America is Biloine W. Young and Melvin L Fowler, Cahokia, the Great Native American Metropolis (2000); an analysis of the culture’s artistic tradition is F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber (eds.), Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms: Interpretations of Mississippian Iconography (2007). Richly illustrated catalogues of pre-Columbian art are available in Richard F. Townsend and Robert V. Sharp (eds.), Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South (2004); and Geneviève Le Fort (ed.), Masters of the Americas: In Praise of the Pre-Columbian Artists: The Dora and Paul Janssen Collection (2005).

The question of how many people lived in the Americas when the Europeans arrived has been the focus of much controversy. Authoritative essays on this topic are in William C. Sturtevant (ed.), Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 3, Environment, Origins, and Population (2006), ed. by Douglas H. Ubelaker. Key texts in the debate include Henry F. Dobyns and William R. Swagerty, Their Number Become Thinned: Native American Population Dynamics in Eastern North America (1983); Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival (1987); and William M. Denevan (ed.), The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, 2nd ed. (1992).

The methods of historical demography and the role of epidemic disease in indigenous depopulation are examined in Noble David Cook, Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650 (1998); David Henige, Numbers from Nowhere: The American Indian Contact Population Debate (1998); and David S. Jones, Rationalizing Epidemics: Meanings and Uses of American Indian Mortality Since 1600 (2004).

History to the late 19th century

An account that places the initial encounters between Europeans and Native Americans in very broad historical perspective may be found in Brian Fagan, Fish on Friday: Feasting, Fasting, and the Discovery of the New World (2006); many of the scholarly debates regarding pre-Columbian life in the Americas, such as those surrounding precontact population figures, the existence of urban areas, and the genetic manipulation of food crops, are addressed in Charles C. Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus (2006). Syntheses of Native American history include Herman J. Viola, After Columbus: The Smithsonian Chronicle of the North American Indians (1990); Angie Debo, A History of the Indians of the United States (1970, reissued 1989), including Alaska; Eleanor Burke Leacock and Nancy Oestreich Lurie (eds.), North American Indians in Historical Perspective (1971, reprinted 1988). Military engagements are summarized in Michael L. Nunnally, American Indian Wars: A Chronology of Confrontations Between Native Peoples and Settlers and the United States Military, 1500s–1901 (2007).

A number of 19th-century artists drew, painted, or photographed Native American individuals and communities; their works provide a compelling visual record of traditional life. Among these are Swiss artist Karl Bodmer, whose works are collected in Karl Bodmer and Maximilian Wied, Travels in the Interiors of North America 1832–1834 (1840, reprinted 2001); David C. Hunt and Marsha V. Gallagher (compilers), Karl Bodmer’s America (1984); W. Raymond Wood, Joseph C. Porter, and David C. Hunt, Karl Bodmer’s Studio Art: The Newberry Library Bodmer Collection (2002); and Brandon K. Ruud (ed.) and Marsha V. Gallagher (compiler), Karl Bodmer’s North American Prints (2004). American painter George Catlin’s work is collected in George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the North American Indians (1841, reprinted 1995); and George Gurney and Therese Thau Heyman (eds.), George Catlin and His Indian Gallery (2002). The work of American photographer Edward S. Curtis is widely available, including Christopher Cardozo (ed.), Edward S. Curtis: The Great Warriors (2004), Edward S. Curtis: The Women (2004), and Sacred Legacy: Edward S. Curtis and the North American Indian (2005).

Indigenous accounts of colonial history are collected in Peter Nabokov (ed.), Native American Testimony: A Chronicle of Indian-White Relations from Prophecy to the Present, 1492–2000, rev. ed. (1999); Colin G. Calloway (ed.), First Peoples: A Documentary Survey of American Indian History, 2nd ed. (2004), The World Turned Upside Down: Indian Voices from Early America (1994), and Our Hearts Fell to the Ground: Plains Indian Views of How the West Was Lost (1996); and Vicki Rozema (ed.), Voices from the Trail of Tears (2003).

The negotiation of power between colonizers and Native Americans is the focus of a myriad of texts, including Robert Blaisdell (ed.), Great Speeches by Native Americans (2000); Andrew L. Knaut, The Pueblo Revolt of 1680: Conquest and Resistance in Seventeenth-Century New Mexico (1997); Nicholas P. Cushner, Why Have You Come Here?: The Jesuits and the First Evangelization of Native America (2006); Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War (2006); Colin G. Calloway, The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America (2006); Warren R. Hofstra (ed.), Cultures in Conflict: The Seven Years’ War in North America (2007); and James Welch and Paul Stekler, Killing Custer: The Battle of Little Bighorn and the Fate of the Plains Indians (2007).

The effects of the enslavement of indigenous Americans are illuminated in Alan Gallay, The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670–1717 (2002). The conflicts that derived from Native American slaveholding are considered in James F. Brooks, Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands (2002); Theda Purdue, Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South (2005); and Tiya Miles, Ties That Bind: The Story of an Afro-Cherokee Family in Slavery and Freedom (2006). A case in which Africans and their descendants merged more easily with native peoples is illustrated in Gary Zellar, African Creeks: Estelvste and the Creek Nation (2007).

History from the late 19th century onward

In the 20th century, many indigenous peoples began to assert that academic scholarship undermined their oral traditions and histories. Discussions regarding this issue in Native American historiography are available in Peter Nabokov, A Forest of Time: American Indian Ways of History (2002); and Jennifer S.H. Brown and Elizabeth Vibert (eds.), Reading Beyond Words: Contexts for Native History, 2nd ed. (2003).

Two memoirs that provide a fascinating perspective on the ways that Native American women’s lives did (and did not) change during the period from about 1860 to the end of the 20th century are Frank B. Linderman, Red Mother (1932, reissued as Pretty-Shield: Medicine Woman of the Crows, 2003), essentially a transcript of a series of conversations between the author and Pretty-Shield; and Alma Hogan Snell, Grandmother’s Grandchild: My Crow Indian Life, ed. by Becky Matthews (2000), the life story of Pretty-Shield’s granddaughter. The lives of Pretty-Shield’s contemporaries are recounted in Frank B. Linderman, American: The Life Story of a Great Indian, Plenty-Coups: Chief of the Crows (1930, reissued as Plenty-Coups: Chief of the Crows, new ed. 2002); Peter Nabokov (ed.), Two Leggings: The Making of a Crow Warrior (1967, reprinted 1982); and John Stands In Timber and Margot Liberty, Cheyenne Memories, 2nd ed. (1998), among others. Alma Hogan Snell’s contemporaries have written memoirs, including Henry Mihesuah, First to Fight, ed. by Devon A. Mihesuah (2002); and Kenny Thomas, Sr., Crow Is My Boss: The Oral Life History of a Tanacross Athabaskan Elder. ed. by Craig Mishler (2005).

Personal accounts of childhood, particularly of early educational encounters, are the substance of Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893–1920 (1996). A number of essays are collected in Andrew Garrod and Colleen Larimore (eds.), First Person, First Peoples: Native American College Graduates Tell Their Life Stories (1997), which is notable for the essayists’ reflections on the school experiences of earlier generations and the impact of those experiences on their own educational pursuits.

Discussions of the problems that have plagued efforts at public education may be found in Delores J. Huff, To Live Heroically: Institutional Racism and American Indian Education (1997); Brenda J. Child, Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900–1940 (1998); John Bloom, To Show What an Indian Can Do: Sports at Native American Boarding Schools (2000); Jon Reyhner and Jeanne Eder, American Indian Education: A History (2004); and Clifford E. Trafzer, Jean A. Keller, and Lorene Sisquoc (eds.), Boarding School Blues: Revisiting American Indian Educational Experiences (2006). A striking contrast to these accounts is Amanda J. Cobb, Listening to Our Grandmothers’ Stories: The Bloomfield Academy for Chickasaw Females, 1852–1949 (2000); it tells of a school that was tribally run and operated on the premise that educated young women were instrumental in effecting cultural resistance.

Another genre that relies heavily on first-person accounts focuses on Native American contributions to the military, such as Jere Bishop Franco, Crossing the Pond: The Native American Effort in World War II (1999); Kenneth William Townsend, World War II and the American Indian (2000); William C. Meadows, The Comanche Code Talkers of World War II (2002); and Tom Holm, Strong Hearts, Wounded Souls: Native American Veterans of the Vietnam War (1996). Biographies of Native Americans who have served in the military include Clark G. Reynolds, On the Warpath in the Pacific: Admiral Jocko Clark and the Fast Carriers (2005); between the world wars Admiral Clark (Cherokee) was instrumental in introducing aviation to the Navy. Memoirs of war include Hollis D. Stabler, No One Ever Asked Me: The World War II Memoirs of an Omaha Indian Soldier, ed. by Victoria Smith (2005); and Leroy TeCube, Year in Nam: A Native American Soldier’s Story (1999).

Public policy and economic development

Government policy, ethnic identity and status, and land claims are set forth in Hazel W. Hertzberg, The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan-Indian Movements (1971), on developments prior to 1934; Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Now That the Buffalo’s Gone: A Study of Today’s American Indians (1982), on land claims and on self-determination and sovereignty; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change Among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (1983), on the Choctaw in the 18th century, the Pawnee in the 19th, and the Navajo in the 20th; Vine Deloria, Jr., and Clifford M. Lytle, The Nations Within: The Past and Future of American Indian Sovereignty (1984); Sandra L. Cadwalader and Vine Deloria, Jr. (eds.), The Aggressions of Civilization: Federal Indian Policy Since the 1880s (1984); Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, 2 vol. (1984), and The Indians in American Society: From the Revolutionary War to the Present (1985); Vine Deloria, Jr. (ed.), American Indian Policy in the Twentieth Century (1985); Sharon O’Brien, American Indian Tribal Governments (1989), on both historical and present-day governments; Janet A. McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 1887–1934 (1991); Charles Wilkinson, Blood Struggle: The Rise of Modern Indian Nations (2005); and Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, The State of the Native Nations: Conditions Under U.S. Policies of Self-Determination (2008).

Census data on housing, family structure, education, and mortality are in C. Matthew Snipp, American Indians: The First of This Land (1989), a text that also makes comparisons with other American ethnic groups. The causes driving the high rate of population increase in indigenous communities are considered in Nancy Shoemaker, American Indian Population Recovery in the Twentieth Century (1999).

Discussions of the individuals, strategies, and tactics involved in Native American resistance and cultural movements are recounted in a number of texts, including Frederick E. Hoxie, Parading Through History: The Making of the Crow Nation in America, 1805–1935 (1995); Rennard Strickland, Tonto’s Revenge: Reflections on American Indian Culture and Policy (1997); Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Joane Nagel, and Troy Johnson (eds.), Red Power: The American Indians’ Fight for Freedom, 2nd ed. (1999); David E. Wilkins and K. Tsianina Lomawaima, Uneven Ground: American Indian Sovereignty and Federal Law (2001); R. David Edmunds (ed.), The New Warriors: Native American Leaders Since 1900 (2001); Richard A. Grounds, George E. Tinker, and David E. Wilkins (eds.), Native Voices: American Indian Identity and Resistance (2003); and Sarah Eppler Janda, Beloved Women: The Political Lives of Ladonna Harris and Wilma Mankiller (2007).

The postwar mass relocation from reservations to cities that was instigated by the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs is considered in Deborah Davis Jackson, Our Elders Lived It: American Indian Identity in the City (2002); and James B. LaGrand, Indian Metropolis: Native Americans in Chicago, 1945–1975 (2002).

Economic development is often seen as the key to indigenous well-being. Discussions of trends in this area include Peter Iverson, When Indians Became Cowboys: Native Peoples and Cattle Ranching in the American West (1994); Donald Lee Fixico, The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century: American Capitalism and Tribal Natural Resources (1998); Eve Darian-Smith, New Capitalists: Law, Politics, and Identity Surrounding Casino Gaming on Native American Land (2004); and Brian Hosmer and Colleen O’Neill (eds.), Native Pathways: American Indian Culture and Economic Development in the Twentieth Century (2004). A number of interesting tribal case studies are also available, including Joseph G. Jorgensen, Oil Age Eskimos (1990); and Colleen O’Neill, Working the Navajo Way: Labor and Culture in the Twentieth Century (2005).

Cultural appropriation

Native American cultures, images, and religions have been heavily appropriated by nonnative commercial ventures and individuals. General discussions include Carter Jones Meyer and Diana Royer (eds.), Selling the Indian: Commercializing & Appropriating American Indian Cultures (2001); Hal K. Rothman (ed.), The Culture of Tourism, the Tourism of Culture: Selling the Past to the Present in the American Southwest (2003); Eva Marie Garroutte, Real Indians: Identity and the Survival of Native America (2003); Alan Trachtenberg, Shades of Hiawatha: Staging Indians, Making Americans: 1880–1930 (2004); Philip Jenkins, Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality (2004); and Huston Smith, A Seat at the Table: Huston Smith in Conversation with Native Americans on Religious Freedom, ed. by Phil Cousineau and Gary Rhine (2005).

The controversies surrounding the ownership and control of indigenous human remains and cultural property are discussed in Devon A. Mihesuah, Repatriation Reader: Who Owns American Indian Remains? (2000); Kathleen S. Fine-Dare, Grave Injustice: The American Indian Repatriation Movement and NAGPRA (2002); David Hurst Thomas, Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity (2000); Keith James (ed.), Science and Native American Communities: Legacies of Pain, Visions of Promise (2001); and Peter Nabokov, Where the Lightning Strikes: The Lives of American Indian Sacred Places (2006).

The use of racially stereotypical mascots by professional, collegiate, and high school sports teams is discussed in Carol Spindel, Dancing at Halftime: Sports and the Controversy over American Indian Mascots, updated ed. (2002); Bruce Stapleton, Redskins: Racial Slur or Symbol of Success? (2001); and C. Richard King and Charles Fruehling Springwood (eds.), Team Spirits: The Native American Mascots Controversy (2001).

Evaluations of the portrayal of American Indians in the cinema include Peter C. Rollins and John E. O’Connor (eds.), Hollywood’s Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film, expanded ed. (2003); Jacquelyn Kilpatrick, Celluloid Indians: Native Americans and Film (1999); and M. Elise Marubbio, Killing the Indian Maiden: Images of Native American Women in Film (2006).

The early 21st century saw a surge in Native American participation in media production, including acting, writing, directing, producing, and critiquing films and television, a phenomenon discussed in Beverly R. Singer, Wiping the War Paint off the Lens: Native American Film and Video (2001); and Sierra S. Adare, “Indian” Stereotypes in TV Science Fiction: First Nations’ Voices Speak Out (2005).